Question:
in German, there are a number of grammatical constructions that can be
called "passive voice", sometimes with more, sometimes with less
justification. What constructions are there in English that can be
called or used as passive? Please explain and/or point me to websites
and literature.
Answer:
There are two passive constructions right there: "can be called" and "can be
called or used".
A passive construction is one where the subject of the sentence is not the
agent -- i.e. not the "doer" of the action. The "doer" does not have to be
explicitly stated, and may even be unknown. In the clause "They can be
called 'passive voice'", it is not said who actually does the calling. It is
certainly not the constructions, they aren't doing anything at all (in that
sentence, anyway).
You might find a lot of passives in detective novels. "Well, constable, this
much is clear: he was followed home, then he was lured into the garden where
he was killed and thrown into the swimming pool." Who did it? We don't know
yet.
It is always possible to avoid passives altogether ("The murderer followed
the victim...") but too much of that can begin to sound stilted and
strained. Passives are encountered more frequently in English than in
German.
The basic construction is "to be" + past participle (sometimes referred to
in German text books on English as the "third form"). The phrase "he was
followed" is the simple past of the passive, as it is formed from the simple
past of "to be", plus the past participle of "follow".
Modal verbs can modify passive constructions, in which case the construction
is: modal verb + "be" + past participle:
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